The growth in internet use has affected cultures around the world, Essay - 4

The growth in internet use has affected cultures around the world, leading to a westernised, homogenous world culture - Essay Example Triandis (1989) pointed out that other cultures learn from western culture in view of the individualism western conception: collective objectives are surpassed by individual ones implying that individuals are important. This essay will therefore, argue how the Internet use growth has affected many cultures globally, leading to a westernized, homogenous world culture. Furthermore, it will evaluate this claim critically in relation to youth culture, business, and politics. The use of the Internet growth has affected the youth culture globally, leading to a westernized, homogenous world culture. In particular, in the web content development many teenagers tend to be active participants. The capability of the youths as contributors was increased immensely by the web 2.0 dawn. Their capability as contributors was increased to web content and not passive consumers. According to Shim (2007), the association between the youth and media is another development of the internet culture. The varying framework of social media facilitates the establishment of large-scale and ad-hoc as well as formal online communities, where generated content of the user flourishes. With regards to this, the user generated content also created by photographers who share their photos, musicians who publicize their music and bloggers who post news. The reduced cost of distributing materials and of synchronizing innovative efforts facilitate the youth to create their content and toge ther work with others in political, economic, and social activities (Goggin and McLelland, 2009). A lot of youths are getting in expanding and are building relationships with their existing friends. Shim (2007) noted that not all youths are permanently engaged to the internet are committed to productions of contents. Unlike offline interaction, interactions online are not limited to a geographical area. Through the social media, youths are interacting, sharing

Nature versus nurture Essay Example for Free

Nature versus nurture Essay â€Å"While each child is born with his or her own distinct genetic potential for physical, social, emotional and cognitive development, the possibilities for reaching that potential remain tied to early life experiences and the parent-child relationship within the family† (Weissbourd, 1996). When a baby is born, that child already posses something in common with every other person in the world, a genetic gene pool. Just like anything else in life, when something is given to a person, the way that person displays what they are given depends on a variety of things. One aspect of human development that has been long debated in the history of psychology is the concept of â€Å"nature vs. nurture. † This phrase, first initiated by Sir Francis Galton in 1874 (S. Wood, 2011; E. Wood, 2011; Boyd 2011, p. 223), refers to the elements of heredity (nature), and the effects of the environment (nurture). I will briefly discus the various arguments for the primacy of nature or nurture in personality development, intelligence, and creativity. Personality is, â€Å"a persons characteristic patterns of behaving, thinking and feeling† (psych book, 352). Heredity may in fact play an important role in the development of an individual’s personality. On the other hand, most psychological theories, including analytical theory, give more emphasis to interpersonal influences. In kindergarten, learning to share is just as important as learning to write. Learning core values at a young age may have more impact on a child’s individuality than any specific genetic code. When growing up, children always look up to someone older than themselves. A child’s mind is like a sponge, gathering up other people’s actions and words. That is how children learn to share, talk and work well with others. Depending on the stimulation a child gets from others will alter the way that child’s personality is in the future. If a child grows up with parents giving them a positive message (lots of attention, giving positive feedback, showing love and affection on a regular basis) they have a more likely chance of being friendly, outgoing, empathetic and curious. When a child grows up with parents, who do not demonstrate a positive message, the child is more likely to have limited social skills, poor self-esteem, and less curiosity. Along with parental influence, there is also the influence of one’s surroundings that can alter ones personality. A child, who is brought up in a desolate area, with little or no violence, is going to have a vastly different demeanor then a child who is brought up in a densely populated city, with a high crime rate. The probability that a male who is raised on a farm in Lancaster County will become a farmer is a lot more likely then a male raised in north Philadelphia. Children raised on farms learn the importance of a good work ethic and determination, because the child understands that if they don’t work hard in the fields, their family won’t survive. Children raised in north Philadelphia (also known as the bad lands) learn the importance of hard work, family, street smarts and grit. These children understand that because of where they live, they will need to learn these life lessons in order to only way of survive or and better themselves. Nurture isn’t the only thing that influences a person’s personality. Everyone has heard the sayings, He acts exactly like his father! or He behaves like that because this is how he was brought up! (Lupu, 2006, sec 1. 3). This is where the controversy comes into play. Psychologists have been debating the theory that heredity influences personality development. Psychologists at the University of Edinburgh carried out a study of more than 800 sets of twins found that genetics were more influential in shaping key traits than a persons home environment and surroundings (Archontaki, 2012; Lewis, 2012; Bates, 2012; sec 1. 2). The traits most commonly found between the twins were self-control, decision-making and sociability, but heredity only develops a person’s personality to a point. According to psychologists, the most reasonable answer of all is neither one, nor the other, but the interaction of the two the genetic and the environmental/educational/experience factor (Lupu, 2006, sect 1. 4). Therefore, heredity establishes the limits of ones personality traits that can be developed, while the environment represented by the cultural, social and situational factors influence the actual development within the limits (Lupu, 2006, sect 1.5). Another area of study that many psychologists have been debating on weather or not is the result of heredity or ones environment is intelligence. Psychologists like Sir Francis Galton and Thomas Bouchard have done studies to figure out weather or not intelligence is genetic or developmental. In 1874, Englishman Sir Francis Galton, studied a number of prominent females in England. Galton attempted to apply Darwins evolutionary theory to the study of human abilities. Galton concluded that intelligence was inherited from genetics. Another psychologist who studied this field was Roger J. Sternberg. In 1988, Sternberg argued that there are a number of ways to demonstrate intelligence or adaptive functioning (â€Å"Psychology 101, sect 4. 5). He suggested a model of intelligence referred to as the triarchic theory. According to this model there are three types of intelligence. The first type was analytical, or the ability to solve a problem by looking at its components. The second was creative, which is the ability to use new ways to solve problems. The third was practical, referring to common sense. While most IQ tests measure only analytical intelligence, they fail to include practical intelligence which is the most understandable to most of us (â€Å"Psychology 101†, sect 4. 5). This test did. Another study conducted was by the Minnesota Center for Twin and Adoption Research. Sense the 1980’s, this research center has been recruiting fraternal and identical twins to participate in research projects examining genetic and environmental influences on a variety of psychological variebles, including intellagents (S. Wood, 2011; E.Wood, 2011; Boyd 2011, p. 224). In 1997, the center’s director, Thomas Bouchard, summarized all of the studies of intelligence that had been done at the center up that point (S. Wood, 2011; E. Wood, 2011; Boyd 2011, p. 224). What the data showed was amazing. Bouchard reported that the identical twins that had been reared apart at birth were closer than identical twins reared together, and brother and sister reared together. Their research using the adoption study method helps to support the conclusion that genes strongly influence IQ scores.

Loyalty to ones king Essay example -- Poetry Poem essays research pape

â€Å"As soon as the Cid caught sight of the King he ordered all his men to halt†¦He knelt down on his hands and knees on the ground and with his teeth he pulled up a mouthful of grass. With tears of joy streaming from his eyes he showed in this way his complete submission to his liege lord, Alfonso.† What would cause a grown man to act in such a manner? The Cid was the ruler of Valencia, and the leader of thousands of soldiers. The Cid has defeated countless enemies and have been victorious in all his wars, he could have been almost thought of as a man without fear. Yet, as soon as he caught sight of the King who has exiled him from his land, he broke down and acted like an animal in front of the King. The ‘loyalty’ and ‘respect’ the Cid has for King Alfonso is the deepest between any characters in the entire poem. Although loyalty and respect is the deepest between the Cid and King Alfonso, there is also a great amount of loyalty and respect a mong different characters also. Such as the Cid and his loyal vassal Minaya, the Cid to his wife Don Jimena, his two daughters Dona Elvira and Dona Sol, and the Cid to his army. Loyalty and respect are very important themes that progresses stronger and stronger throughout the poem, loyalty can do good and bad to loved ones, but in this poem, it eventually led to conflicts with severe consequences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Cid stayed loyal to King Alfonso throughout the entire poem. Never once did the Cid say anything bad or offensive towards the King. Although King Alfonso ostracized the Cid from his land, the Cid still respected the King and stayed loyal to him. The Cid was framed by Count Garcia Ordonez, Ordonez accused the Cid of greed. Ordonez told the King that the Cid kept money from him, which upset the King and eventually led to the Cid being exiled from the land. After being exiled, the Cid left the land with a small army and conquered numerous enemies and land.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even though King Alfonso was the one who sent the Cid away, the Cid tried to regain the position he once had in King Alfonso’s heart. In trying to do so, the Cid sent â€Å"thirty horses, all saddled and bridled, with swords hanging from their saddlebows.† King Alfonso was pleasantly surprised by such an action. This again proves the amount of loyalty and respect the Cid has for King Alfonso. Not only does he still remain loyal to the King, he even sends a great porti... ...uno Gustioz will fight in the Cid’s honor against the Infantes of Carrion: Fernando, Ansur, and Diego Gonzalez. The Cid’s three knights volunteered themselves for the battle and were not picked by the Cid. This shows the amount of loyalty and respect the Cid’s knights has for the Cid. The Cid’s knights were proud to defend their lord’s honor. All three of the Cid’s knights were victorious in all of their duels, and brought honor to the Cid and his family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Loyalty and respect is a continuing theme in the poem. As the poem progresses, the theme of loyalty and respect evidently grows stronger and stronger. The Cid would not be a successful leader if he did not display such loyalty and respect to his troops. The Cid remained loyal to his king and his troops which paid off. By remaining loyal and fighting alongside his troops, he has gained loyalty back from his troops. The Cid led by example. Loyalty and respect is most evident between King Alfonso and the Cid, there are also strong signs of loyalty between Cid’s family and his vassals. Throughout the poem, Loyalty and respect proved to be good in many ways, but it can also cause harm to your loved ones if it is blind loyalty.

The Lumberjack :: essays research papers

'Timber!'; and with a crash the mighty oak hit the ground. There was never a tree too big or a job too tough for Woody. He enjoyed his job as a lumberjack and with good reason. The pay was good, he had always liked the outdoors and he was good at what he did. In fact, some say he was the best. His friends in the city however said he was crazy for moving away. They said there are so many opportunities in the city, but Woody never wanted opportunities, he just wanted to be a lumberjack. So far this job was running smoothly. They were on schedule and there was an abundance of trees in British Columbia to keep them busy for the next while. It seemed so simple at first. Woody and his crew would cut down the trees and they would be shipped to a nearby river where they would be floated downstream to the new lumber mill. At least this was what was supposed to happen. After the first couple loads, there came reports that the logs weren't reaching their destination. Some of the men started talking about how they were logging on uncharted territory and this was a bad omen. Woody just laughed and said, 'Uncharted territory or not, we have a job to do and I'm not going to let some little thing like this ruin my reputation. I'll go see what the problem is.'; And so Woody packed a bag with supplies and sailed off down the river to find the missing logs. It wasn't long before the lush green landscape of trees he saw around him became a bare region of stumps and small brush. It was almost as if another logging crew had been here before him. He was amazed at the number of trees that had been cut down. It would have taken his entire crew at least a week and yet all of the stumps looked freshly cut. Woody had to find out what was happening. A bit further down the river he found his answer. There in front of him were all of the missing logs. They had became jammed at the base of the biggest beaver dam he had ever seen. He gazed up at it in awe of it's shear size. The river itself was quite wide and this dam covered it from shore to shore.

Benthams version of Utilitarianism Essay

Utilitarianism is the ethical theory that shows the reasons for a person choosing to carry out an action – it justifies an action being for the greater good. Utilitarianism is a teleological theory which means it looks at the consequences or result of an action – to decide whether it is subsequently right or wrong this also makes it a consequentialist theory. The theory of Utilitarianism began with Jeremy Bentham. Bentham’s theory of Utilitarianism is where actions are judged based upon the pleasure gained in the result. Jeremy Bentham was the man who originally thought of and came up with the idea of Utilitarianism, he believed in ‘the greatest good for the greatest number’. There are two types of Utilitarianism; Bentham’s theory is Act Utilitarianism. Act Utilitarianism is about creating the greatest amount of pleasure in a particular situation through a particular action. Bentham believed and used research to conclude that people would naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain. ‘Nature had placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as to determine what we shall do.’ (Bentham) Bentham truly believed that pleasure was the purest form of good and pain the sole evil; he saw this as moral fact. This is why Bentham is also known as a hedonist. The hedonists were a group of Greek people who sought to find true pleasure; ‘hedone’ means pleasure in Greek, this group included people such as Plato and Aristotle – who agreed that good was found in the greatest happiness. The principle of utility was a way to find out how good or bad an action was, based on its utility (usefulness). An action that creates the most pleasure and the least pain is a useful one and therefore it is good – pain v pleasure. For Bentham good, is the maximum amount of pleasure with the minimum amount of pain afflicted and bad, is pain with little pleasure received. Bentham believed that in any situation a person should think of a solution that will lead to the maximum happiness for the maximum of people. For example, if a man with the cure for cancer and a young child were in a car crash, you would assume to save the life of the child as they are considered to be innocent, however with Bentham’s theory you should do the maximum amount of good for the maximum amount of people, which means you should save the man. By saving the one man you then save thousands, the action of letting the child die is out weighed by the amount of people you have saved if using Bentham’s theory. However Bentham knew that it would be hard to predict the outcome of every situation and know which route to take and so in order to help, he came up with the ‘hedonic calculus’ which you can use to work out which option will produce the greatest amount of pleasure. There are seven factors which you must take into account when choosing what to do in a certain situation; the intensity of the pleasure, the duration of the pleasure, how certain pleasure will be the result, how near the pleasure is to you, how continuous is the pleasure, is there likely to be pain mixed with the pleasure and how widespread will the pleasure be. When faced in a dilemma, Bentham believed that you could chose the ‘good’ option – the option which would do the most amount of good and the least amount of pain. For example, if you are in a plane crash and you could only save one person; your wife, your child or a doctor who has the ability to save many. Bentham believes in this situation you must use ‘the hedonic calculus’ to form a solution to your problem. The doctor could make thousands of lives better and create much more pleasure than if you save the wife or child, however this tough decision would leave you without pleasure. Following Bentham’s utilitarianism you must save the doctor. When a decision has to be made over a moral situation, the hedonic calculus is used. In using the hedonic calculus the individuals involved should be considered by applying the seven factors to them in relation to the options for the choice of action you have. ‘Utilitarianism has no serious weakness’ Discuss It is true that Utilitarianism does have many strengths however it does have weaknesses too. Bentham, Mill, Hare and Singer’s theories each have their own faults. Utilitarianism is very straight forward and easy to understand. It is very natural for a person to consider the outcome and how much pleasure they will gain before going through with an action. It is a principle that aims to bring people happiness this is very appealing for many in societies. Many of the ideas and theories can be related to specific actions and situations and therefore can be helped out in the process of considering what to do in certain places, for example; giving to charity gives happiness to the poor and is good whereas acting cruelly towards someone is bad. The use of Utilitarianism can be carried out universally. Utilitarianism is not dependant on any religion, culture, race or society as it is about a person or groups happiness. This use of utilitarianism is great because it makes people picture and understand other people’s point of view for example; if you were to hit someone then instead of carrying out the action, you would think about the outcome – picture yourself in the other person’s shoes – understand that pain which you would cause and subsequently stop yourself from hurting them. You have to think of other people’s pleasure and pain rather than just your own. This is mainly used in preference utilitarianism as Hare put it ‘standing in someone else’s shoes’. The fact that Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory is both good and bad. It is natural for us to weigh up the consequences of an action before carrying it out however it is never going to be easy to always predict the outcome of an action completely right for example; if you go out to steal to help your family survive but then get caught and arrested then you can no longer carry out the ‘good’ action of helping your family. Utilitarianism may also be argued against because it ignores or seems to ignore the importance of following duties – the act itself may be right or wrong for a reason other than the amount of happiness it produces, for example an old friend is on his death bed and asks you to swear that you will give à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½30,000 (all of his money when he dies) to his favourite park he used to visit but on the way to handing over the money you see an advert that says it needs à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½30,000 to save 10,000 people. Out of duty you must give the money to the park however if you are following Utilitarianism your belief is that the money must going into creating the most good/ happiness which would be saving those 10,000 people. W.D Ross believed it was important for you to follow and carry out your duty. Bentham’s Act utilitarianism although was flexible and relied on the consequences it had no defence for minorities for example; one slave being treated badly but creating happiness for a whole family would be thought of as right. Also it is very impractical having to calculate using the ‘hedonic calculus’ every decision we make. There is also a difficulty defining what pleasure is for example; a paedophile’s pleasure is very different to another person’s. Mill’s Rule utilitarianism is very practical and sets about certain rules for society that must be maintained which can help societies to operate. However there are weaknesses to rule utilitarianism too again there is no defence for minorities or any help at what defines happiness but also this time if you are following rules you could end up obeying them even when more happiness can be created by disobeying them.

Free Essays on Holocaust Remembrance

The Holocaust is a horrifying chapter in our history, an event some people can't even believe happened, many more would just like to forget it. But there are survivors of this Holocaust who can attest to the horrors that they went through, who will not let us forget it. Survivors who can not forget and will not forgive the Nazis and the atrocities they subjected them to. They are all innocent individuals, who share only the suffering they went through and the injustice of being persecuted for who they were, rather than something they did. The armies who liberated them from the concentration camps found a diverse group of prisoners, people with completely different backgrounds, all with their own stories to tell. The Allied forces liberated the few remaining prisoners from the death camps in late 1944 and early 1945. They marched in expecting nothing but a large prison, completely unprepared for the Hell that they found. The soldiers had difficulty comprehending what they saw, the death, torture, disease, and starvation, all of innocent people, all at the hands of other men. Soldiers cried and were sick to their stomachs as they swore their revenge, and they told reporters, "We have seen Dachau. Now we know what we are fighting for." Other soldiers, like some people today, tried, for a little while, not to believe the horrors of what they saw, but the ovens were still hot and the truth could not be denied; there were also the survivors themselves who were there to confirm what the soldiers saw. They rushed to the soldiers as they entered the camp, begging for food and medicine. Sergeant Henry DeJarnette said of the survivor's welcome that it was like "Being hugged and kissed by walking skelet ons. " Some senior intelligence agents took interviews of some of the survivors; many more have told their stories to others since. (Milk, pp.48-50) Esther Cohen remembers the liberation and remembers not really believing it was over. She was very ... Free Essays on Holocaust Remembrance Free Essays on Holocaust Remembrance The Holocaust is a horrifying chapter in our history, an event some people can't even believe happened, many more would just like to forget it. But there are survivors of this Holocaust who can attest to the horrors that they went through, who will not let us forget it. Survivors who can not forget and will not forgive the Nazis and the atrocities they subjected them to. They are all innocent individuals, who share only the suffering they went through and the injustice of being persecuted for who they were, rather than something they did. The armies who liberated them from the concentration camps found a diverse group of prisoners, people with completely different backgrounds, all with their own stories to tell. The Allied forces liberated the few remaining prisoners from the death camps in late 1944 and early 1945. They marched in expecting nothing but a large prison, completely unprepared for the Hell that they found. The soldiers had difficulty comprehending what they saw, the death, torture, disease, and starvation, all of innocent people, all at the hands of other men. Soldiers cried and were sick to their stomachs as they swore their revenge, and they told reporters, "We have seen Dachau. Now we know what we are fighting for." Other soldiers, like some people today, tried, for a little while, not to believe the horrors of what they saw, but the ovens were still hot and the truth could not be denied; there were also the survivors themselves who were there to confirm what the soldiers saw. They rushed to the soldiers as they entered the camp, begging for food and medicine. Sergeant Henry DeJarnette said of the survivor's welcome that it was like "Being hugged and kissed by walking skelet ons. " Some senior intelligence agents took interviews of some of the survivors; many more have told their stories to others since. (Milk, pp.48-50) Esther Cohen remembers the liberation and remembers not really believing it was over. She was very ...

Impact of marketing communications on customers’ attitudes and behaviour. The WritePass Journal

Impact of marketing communications on customers’ attitudes and behaviour. Introduction Impact of marketing communications on customers’ attitudes and behaviour. Introduction The aim of this essay is to explain how marketing communications can be used to change customers’ attitudes and influence customers’ behaviour. Marketing communications play a significant role in changing customers’ attitudes because customers have different attitudes and it could be positive or negative attitudes. Attitudes are erudite from past experiences which may relate to the product itself, brand and purchasing decision. According to Hughes and Fill (2007) â€Å"attitudes are defined as the expression of an individual’s feeling towards a product, service or organisation†. Customers’ attitudes could not be observed directly but it can be detected by using market research methods. There are three main components of attitudes which are cognitive (learn) that is; what target audience know about the product or service, affective (feel) is what they feel about the product or service and conative (do) is about the action taken based on their knowledge and feelings. This essay will cover information processing models, attitudes formation and change, and customers’ response behaviour. There are different models that could be used to communicate to both customers and potential customers. These models are AIDA principle (Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action) (Blythe 2006), McGuire’s information processing models (Shimp 1997), AILA models and hierarchy of effects model are used by organisations to communicate messages to the customers or potential buyers (Blythe 2006). The AIDA model lacks in the retention ability of the consumers, also quite simplistic. This will allow the author to focus on McGuire’s information processing model which emphasis on the retention, which is very important in a communication campaign. Shimp (1997:118) identify the stages of McGuire’s information Processing model which are; Exposure to information, Selective attention, comprehension of attended information, agreement with comprehended information, retention in memory of accepted information, retrieval of information from memory, consumer decision making from alternatives and action taking on the basis of decision. These points will be discussed below. However, the first stage is to expose the information to consumers, that is; consumers should be aware of the messages being delivered. â€Å"Exposure means that customers come in contact with the marketer’s message (they see a magazine ad, hear a radio commercial, and so on)† (Shimp, 1997 p.118). Thus, this stage is a crucial stage because it is necessary for consumers to be aware of the messages but it does not guarantee communication success in the sense that the message might not have any impact on consumers. The next stage is selective attention. Consumers attend to a message being aware of and reflect on a message. However, attention is extremely selective because not all the messages being exposed to would consumers pay attention to; consumers could only pay attention to the advertisement that is relevant to them. Therefore â€Å"selective attention occurs as a result of limited mental ability to process information; ego-defence; the personal relevance of the information to which the individual is exposed; and limited motivation to process† (Kitchen, 1999 p.161). Moreover, consumer needs to comprehend what is attended to. This means that, the message which has been attended to must be clearly understood by consumers that is, consumers should be able to understand and interpret the message. Therefore marketing communicators have to ensure they comprehend customer interpretations and their messages reflect them. However, having comprehended the message, consumers need to agree with what they have understood in the message. Though, this does not guarantee that the message will change consumers’ attitudes or influence their actions, the agreement could only state whether the message is reliable or not with the values that are essential to consumers. Furthermore, the next stage of information processing is message retention, search and retrieval. This involves consumers’ ability to retain and recall the message and how customers could access and retrieve information/message when making buying decision. However, marketing communicators need to ensure that the messages enter customers’ long term memory by highlighting the benefits, and where messages can be retrieved to influence future decision†¦ (Kitchen, 1999). The next stage is for customers to decide among alternatives that is, which product or brand to purchase. However, at this point it is not always easy for customers to decide on what brand or product to purchase because consumers might have stored different information in term of facts, beliefs, and benefits and so on in their long term memory about each product or brand. It is possible for consumers to recall from his or her memory attitude toward relevant alternatives and pick the one that affect individual positively. However, Shimp (1997) stated that when making choices under nondominant situations, consumers must give something up in order to get something else. That is, high involvement decision making most always requires that trade-off be made. The last stage in information processing is for consumers to act on the basis of the decision. For consumers to act positively toward the brand or product, marketing communicators must make use of communication tools especially sales promotion such as BOGOF-buy one get one free, discounts and so on. Moreover all marketing communication tools must be coordinated and integrated in order to get consumers act fast. Thus, having gone through information processing model, the author believes that this information processing could form consumers’ attitudes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ 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 Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dibb et al (1997) also defined attitude as an individual’s enduring evaluation, feelings and behavioural tendencies towards an object or activity. Blythe (2006) states attitudes can be formed by translating customer’s needs into motivation to process information, and consequent exposure to stimulus and the processing of this information leads to cognitive responses and affective responses which may lead to conation, or intended behaviour of a customer. This means that customers learn about a product, they feel and take either positive or negative action based on what they’ve learnt. Cognitive, affective and conative are the three main components of attitude identified by Fill (2009). These three components tend to be consistent that is, a change in one attitude component tends to create related changes in other components (Botha et al, 2004). Cognitive component is about customers understanding or knowledge about a product, brand or service. Customers and potential customers tend to learn more about the products they intend to buy. For example, when a customer lack information or misunderstand a brand or product attribute, marketing communication must play a significant role by providing right or up to date information about the product or service and this will facilitate customers to learn and allow them to see the clear picture (truth) of the product, information should be rational that is, it must be based on facts. However, â€Å"it is important that the level and quality of the information provided is appropriate to the intellectual capabilities of the target audience† (Fill, 2009:153). In order for customers to learn more about a product or brand, marketing communication tools must be adopted such as advertising or public relations. These will create awareness, give full information about the product and infl uence the way customers see a product. Although while advertising is said to be more sophisticated in order to stimulate demand, consumers do fear the manipulative and subliminal techniques that is used (Heath and Heath 2008) cited (Pollay and Mittal 1993). Affective component has to do with customers’ feeling about a product or service. It is possible for customers to feel positive or negative about a product or brand. However, it is important that customers have positive attitude toward a product or brand because this will prompt both existing and potential customers to buy the product or brand but when customers develop negative attitude to a product or brand, this would be difficult to change therefore information provided for customers at this stage should be emotional rather than rational approach because emotional messages could be used to change customer’s feeling and their interest to use the product or brand. For example a tone of a voice, attractive colours, suitable music, style and so on. All these could be used to generate emotional disposition about a product or brand. Furthermore, conative component signifies the result of the cognitive and affective components whether to buy or not to buy the product (Botha et al, 2004). This means that customers take action based on their knowledge and feelings whether to accept or reject the product/brand. Fill (2009:155) states that â€Å"a conative approach stimulates people to try, test, trial, visit (a showroom or website) a brand usually free and often without overt commitment.† This involves the customers to try the products/services before beliefs or feelings are changed  either negative or positive about the products/services and this can be achieved through marketing communication tools such as sales promotion, direct marketing or personal selling. These tools can be used to force behavioral change for example sales promotion prompts customers to try a product or brand, direct marketing promotes a response from customers and engages in interaction, and personal selling remind the customers abo ut the benefits and persuade them to take positive actions. However, sale promotion for example could be by given free samples of the product to customers or organize an open days where potential customers and their families partakes in trial sections. Thus, at this stage the priority of marketing communications is to change customers’ attitudes in line with organization culture and this must be continuous and ongoing  process which takes time. Marketing communications can change customers’ negative attitudes into positive attitudes. Attitude towards a certain brand or product/ services are quite important dimension since they affect consumer’s tendency to purchase. It has to be emphasized that attitude is often difficult to change, with a coordinated communication campaign, this can be changed overtime. For example, if a consumer is of the view that smoking kills, no amount of persuasive information or advertisement can change such believe. According to Fill (2009) there are different techniques used by marketing communication to change customers’ attitudes. The author will explain these below: Firstly, marketing communication can be used to change customers’ misunderstanding. It is possible to change customers’ misunderstanding about a product or brand through product demonstration and functionality. For instance, if a potential customer have a negative impression or misunderstand the benefits of a product, communication campaign could be done to correct this impression by changing the packaging or the name of the product. Secondly, marketing communication can be used to change customers’ performance beliefs. Customers’ attitudes about a product or service can be change through appropriate marketing communication campaign for example, if a product presentation is in doubt, marketing communication could be used to provide   right information to correct the misperception. Also, marketing communication can be used to change consumer priorities. For example, if customers are too focused on one feature of the service or product say price for example without recognizing the variety of benefits it gets, a communication campaign could be used to change this attitude. Furthermore, marketing communication can be used to change the physical product element by modifying or reformulating the product. Using communication campaign might change consumer’s attitude and perception. Marketing communication campaign can also be used to change competitor’s perception- Changing the way competitor’s products are perceived by customers can differentiate the company brand positively. Lastly, change attributes priorities can be used to change attitudes that is, initiating a strategy to differentiate attribute can change attitudes. For example, by stressing the importance of ethical organisations behaviour such as cause related marketing and giving back to the community or third world countries, over rival competitors who stresses on innovation. Having gone through attitude formation and change, there are some models to consider in customer’s behaviour response to marketing communication. One of the models is AIDA model which will be discussed below. Procter et al .(1982) cited by Ayanwale et al (2005) states that the principal aim of consumer behaviour analysis is to explain why consumers act in a particular way under certain circumstances. Barry and Howard (1990) cited in Egan (2007) also states â€Å"that proponent of the traditional hierarchy framework suggest that customers respond to message in a very ordered way that is cognitively (thinking), then affectively (feeling) and conative (doing).† This means that customers respond based on what they know and their feelings about the product or service. Yorke and Littler (2011) assumed that learning about a product will lead to customers’ feeling about the product that results in the buy of the product. Also, stated that it is a learn-feel-buy model of consumer responses to marketing communications. This also means consumers response to marketing communications based on what they know, feel about the product or brand then take action. However, AIDA is one of the models of marketing communication based on a hierarchy of effects. Blythe (2006) states that AIDA is an easy model of consumer response to marketing communications and it stands for Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action. These are four steps marketing communicator needs to take customers through before they buy a product or brand. Moreover, cognitive component signifying that marketing communicator must get customer’s attention first before doing anything and this could be done for example using powerful words, music or pictures that will grab customer’s attention. Developing interest and desire to buy a product or brand are parts in the affective component, that is, where positive attitude toward the product or service required. The last stage is action which is the conative component where customers and potential customers take action, that is, to buy or not to buy the product. Yorke and Littler (2011) also assumed that progression logically through the AIDA stages is not always possible it depends on the product or service being offered and the target customers. However, attitude influences purchase decision. In some cases exposure to certain brand(s) through advertisement message may tempt the consumer to purchase the product, if the consumer on the other hand is dissatisfied with the purchase, or does not match the expected promises or requirement from the advertisement, then a process known as dissonance occurs. If this happens the advertised message will be viewed in a different way. In conclusion, marketing communications play a significant role in changing customers’ attitude and influence customers’ behaviour. Having considered McGuire’s information processing model, attitude formation and change and also consumer’s response behaviour, it could be said that customer’s attitude is not easy to change. This means attitude can be complex and difficult to study because different customer have different attitude for example, customer’s attitude A towards a product or brand may be different to customer’s attitude B. Attitude can be inferred from customer’s behavioural pattern or by creating a group of discussion to observe the consumers, or by simply using market research methods. Marketing communicators should understand customer’s behavior in order to provide them with right information. REFERENCES    Ayanwale, A. B., Alimi, T. and Ayanbimpe, M. (2005) ‘The influence of advertising on consumer brand preference.’ Journal of Social Science, Vol. 10, pp.9-16 Blythe, J. (2006) Essentials of marketing communications, 3rd edn. FT Prentice Hall. Botha, J., Strydom, J., and Brink, A. (2004) Introduction to marketing, 3rd edn. Juta and Co Limited, South Africa. Dibb, S., Simkin, L., Pride, W.M., and Ferrell, O.C (1997) Marketing, 3rd edn. Houghton Mifflin. Egan, J., (2007) Marketing communications, Thomson learning, Bedford Row. Fill, C. (2009) Marketing Communications: Interactivity, communities and content, 5th edn. Harlow, FT Prentice Hall. Heath, M.T. and Heath, M. (2008) ‘(Mis)trust in marketing: a reflection on consumers attitudes and perception’ Journal of marketing management Vol. 24, pp 1025-1039. Hughes, G. and Fill, C. (2007) Marketing communications, 1st edn. Butterworth- Heinemann. Kitchen, P.J. (1994) Marketing communication: Principles and Practice 1st edn. Thomson Business Press, Cornwall. Shimp, T.A (1997) Advertising, Promotion, and Supplemental Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications, 4th edn. Dryden Press. Yorke, D. and Littler, D. (2011) AIDA Model [Online] Available from: blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631233176_chunk_g97814051025444_ss1-1 {Accessed 17 March 2011}

How Hurricanes Form in the Sahara Desert

How Hurricanes Form in the Sahara Desert In the United States, the eastern and Gulf coasts are in danger of being slammed by hurricanes from June through November because the waters in the North Atlantic Ocean are typically at their warmest while the Sahara is at its hottest during the same time period. A hurricane is a complex weather system that can be simply explained as a funnel of warm, wet air. It is a non-frontal system whose air has a distinct circular flow. One starts forming  for the United States when hot air over the Sahara is released into the North Atlantic. The Sahara The Sahara, whose land mass is almost that of the continental United States, is the largest â€Å"hot† desert in the world. It is also the second largest desert overall and covers 10 percent of the African continent. (Antarctica is the largest desert in the world and is classified as a â€Å"cold† desert.) In the Sahara, the day-night-day temperatures can swing 30 degrees in a few hours. Great swirling winds over the Sahara carry sand  over the Mediterranean, bringing storms into England, and drop sand on the beaches of eastern Florida.   The Sahara-Hurricane Connection The temperatures of the land mass of western North Africa grows  hot, and the air over this area rises to create the African easterly jet. A column of hot air swirls upward three miles and spreads as it races to the continents  west coast, where it dips toward the ocean. The air picks up moisture from the warm water  and continues its race westward. The flow of the ocean and the spin of Earth combined with the dry winds of the desert and the warm, moist air off the Atlantic horse latitudes make this desert-born weather grow. As a  weather system travels across the Atlantic, it spins and flies over the water and can grow in intensity as it picks up moisture, especially when it arrives in the area of Central America and the warm Eastern Pacific waters. Tropical Storms vs. Hurricanes When wind speeds in the weather system are less than 39 miles per hour, it is classified as a tropical depression. At 39 to 73 miles per hour, it is a tropical storm, if its winds are rotating. This is the point where the World Meteorological Association gives the storm a name, on a predetermined schedule that refreshes names every six years, alternating male and female names in alphabetical order. Next up the storm intensity scale after tropical storms are hurricanes.  The lowest category of hurricanes happens at 74 miles per hour, category 1. Sometimes tropical storms and hurricanes spend their life out over the open ocean, never reaching landfall. When they do hit  land, tropical storms and hurricanes can do great damage through spawning thunderstorms that cause flooding and tornadoes.  When a hurricane  was big enough to cause a lot of damage, then the name is retired and a new name replaces it on the list. Contributed by Associate Writer Sharon Tomlinson

Barbican Centre Description and analysis of motivations behind the Essay

Barbican Centre Description and analysis of motivations behind the planning scheme - Essay Example Then, the effects of the site on the social and economic life of the local community should be identified, as possible. Also, the resources available for the realization of the particular planning scheme have to be taken into account. In current paper another aspect of urban planning schemes is explored: the motivations that can exist behind such schemes. Particular emphasis is given to the potential influence of modern and postmodern culture on the planning schemes developed within cities. The case of Barbican Centre in London is used as an example for checking the interaction between urban planning and culture. The literature developed in this field is reviewed aiming to show that urban planning is not independent from the cultural environment of modern cities. However, the level at which an urban planning scheme is affected by culture is not standardized; the practice followed in other urban planning schemes developed locally is commonly used as the basis for defining the cultural characteristics of urban planning schemes. In the case under examination the above finding is explained as follows: the designers of the Barbican Centre were based on cultural trends used in the high majority of similar buildings across UK. Of course, differences between Barbican Centre and other sites of similar use have not been avoided, a fact that it is related to the personal perceptions of its designers but also to the needs that the specific Centre has to cover. In addition, through the years, the alterations of certain of the Centre’s initial parts have been necessary under the influence of postmodern culture, an issue discussed analytically below. 2.0 Barbican Centre as a planning scheme reflecting modern and postmodern culture 2.1 Barbican Centre – Description and key characteristics The interaction between the Barbican Centre and the modern/ postmodern culture can be understood only by referring primarily to the key characteristics of Barbican Centre, meani ng especially its construction elements/ structure both in its initial phase, in 1982, and after its two refurbishments, in 2006 and in 2012. The Barbican Centre in the City of London can be characterized as an exceptional architectural work. The idea for the Centre’s establishment can be identified in 1955 but it was quite later, in 1982, that the Centre was finally completed;1 the Queen was invited to open the Barbican Centre in 1982, an invitation to which the Queen responded positively.2 At that time, the Barbican Centre was thought to be an exceptional work, not just in aesthetic terms but also in functional terms: the Centre included not only theatres and cinema but also ‘a library and a series of galleries’.3 Figure 1 – Photos of Barbican Centre, as in 1982 (E-architect 2013) The cost of Barbican Centre has been estimated to ?153m.4 In 2006 the refurbishment of the Centre was considered as necessary so that certain functional weaknesses of the Centr e to be addressed; the works done on the Centre in 2006 reached a cost of ?14m.5 Today, the Barbican Centre is the largest complex of buildings dedicated to art.6 The Centre is consisted of a series of buildings of different size; the London Symphony Orchestra is one of the most important buildings of Barbican Centre.7 The annual visitors of Barbican Centre are about 1.5million.8 An important characteristic of the construction process has been its duration.9 In fact, when the Centre was finally completed its main construction material, ‘the concrete hulk, had fallen out of fashion’.10 The access to the Centre is rather strange: ‘at street level the available connections are limited’.11 Instead, the Centre can be accessed easier by ‘

The Economics of Crime. The Determinants of Rates of Crime in England Essay

The Economics of Crime. The Determinants of Rates of Crime in England and Wales - Essay Example Crime has been taken as a social issue and discussion on economics of crime follows. The crime incidence of England and Wales has been taken as the real world scenario. The market model of crime determines the expectations of the participants on probability of getting victimized. It has been found out that the elasticity of the supply and demand curve have a major role to play. In order to deal with the effect of crimes, the public enforcement laws can be made more stringent as that will reduce the opportunity cost of committing crimes and pay-off will get reduced. Aims and objectives of the study The overall aim of the project is to show the relevance of the economic analysis to real world scenario. The micro or the macro theory is used by the policy makers. There is no simple solution to the major social issues and the aim of the project is not to provide readymade remedies. The aim is not to take into account the fine details of the different policies of the government that relate s to social issues but the concrete aim of the study is to witness the way economists analyze problems relating to social issues. The aim is to show the use of economics in the vast fields and economics cannot be encircled only in business. Economics of crime The aim of the project is to determine the determinants of rates of crime in England and Wales. Some researchers put out their views by providing a framework in which they provide an economic analysis of crime. They assumed that the offenders are economically rational as well as utility maximizing. They predicted crime can be kept in check through stringent law enforcement polices as high prices for crime commitment would act as the disincentive for the offenders to participate in illegal activities (Winter, 2008). On the other hand if the labour market does not provide job opportunities the potential offenders would get involved in criminal activities as it reduces the opportunity cost of doing such activities. Following the i nferences many scholars were interested in empirically testing the predicted relationship between crime and variables which can influence the offender’s decision by affecting the costs and benefits of crime commitment (Eide, Rubin, Mehlop, 2006). The analysis has distinct implications for the purpose of policy analysis. The response towards crime is one of the priorities for governments. It is necessary to understand the effective control of crime and the interaction between crime and the various social factors. Crime can be reduced by increasing the income level of the offenders and if the empirical tests on the crime rates in England and Wales can confirm the validity of the predictions, it can be stated that economic growth can act as the effective way to reduce the frequency of crime (Peltzman, and Fiorentini, 1997). Effective control of crime through economic growth will be less costly for the government as economic prosperity is indeed the aim of the government (Freeman , 1999). The reduction of the rates of crime is a positive side effect of good conditions within the economy (Benson, 2010). The decision of committing crime is analyzed on the basis of cost. According to BBC Magazine the average cost of keeping an offender in prison for a year sums up to 50,000 pounds. The champions of community punishment point their effectiveness stating the reoffending crime rates to be at 36% compared to 60% among those released after short term punishments. Decision to commit crime: An individual can earn 100 pounds in legal

Lenses Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lenses - Research Paper Example Whenever a lens is surrounded by air, refraction of light takes place from the air into the lens, crossing through the lens and then refracting back into the air. Each refraction can lead to a change in the direction of light travel. There are two types of lenses, converging lenses, and diverging lenses. A converging lens is one that causes light rays that were initially parallel to the central axis to converge, while a diverging lens is one that causes such light rays to diverge. When an object is placed in front of any of the two types of lenses, light rays that can refract either into or out of the lens from the object to produce an image of the object. A lens can produce an object image only because it can bend light rays, but it can only do this only if its refraction index is different from that of the surrounding medium (Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 936). The single spot to which light rays that have been refracted by a lens are converging is known as the focal point. The dista nce from the lens to the focal point, often denoted by the letter f, is called the focal length. Every lens has its own focal length that forms its defining characteristic. A lens can have either a positive or a negative focal length, depending on the side of the lens on which an object is placed. When the focal point of a lens is on the opposite side of the lens from where an object is placed, the resulting focal length is positive. On the other hand, when the focal point is on the same side as the object, the focal length is negative. While these terminologies are useful convections used by scientists and engineers to characterize lenses as well as mirrors, they contain no real physical meanings (Kirkpatrick & Gregory, 367). Both converging and diverging lenses form different types of images, depending on where the object is placed. When an object is placed inside the focal point, the lens forms a virtual image that is on the same side of the lens as the object, and having the sam e orientation. Thus, a converging lens can form two types of images, real or virtual, depending on whether the object is placed inside or outside of the focal point. In the case of a diverging lens, the image formed is virtual that is on the same side of the lens as the object, and contains the same orientation. This is regardless of the object distance and whether it is placed inside or outside of the focal point. Just like in the case of mirrors, when the image is real the image distance is taken to be positive while when the image is virtual it is taken to be negative. However, the location from lenses of real and virtual images are the reverse of those belonging to mirrors. Real images form on the lens side that is opposite the object, while virtual images form on the side that the object is located (Benenson, 358). There are lens systems that are arrangements of a correction of lenses that have a common optical axis, and are mostly applied in the correction of image defects tha t are present in single lenses. If the positions of the principal planes of the single lens are known together with their total focus, then it is possible for an optical image to be constructed for a lens system. The image construction is similar with that of thick lens if there are only two principal planes. In addition to lens systems, there are lenses with

International Business - Multinational Enterprises - Cross Boundary Research Paper

International Business - Multinational Enterprises - Cross Boundary Expansions - Research Paper Example (So & Westward, 2009) By 2007, â€Å"Taobao held 82 percent of the market, according to Analysys International† and eBay sold out of the EachNet venture, maintaining only its www.ebay.cn operations, which were not adopted in a widespread manner for domestic Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) ecommerce transaction in China. (So & Westward, 2009) eBay can also be seen to have failed in the advancement of it PayPal strategy in China, which was surpassed by AliPay in usage by Chinese consumers. What is most striking in these examples is that eBay had the competitive advantages of pre-existing market dominance, brand name recognition, partnership with the dominant ecommerce auction website in China, and still failed in not only maintaining these market positions, but instead became a minority business operator in the Chinese domestic marketplace for online auctions. ... eBay’s failure to respect the local dynamics of Chinese culture and its patterns of internet use, its centralized corporate strategy internationally, as well as its failure to understand the threat of TaoBao to its business model in China all led to the eBay’s cross-boundary expansion strategy internationally being unsuccessful in accomplishing its aims of foreign market establishment, increased company profit, and the creation of long-term shareholder value. eBay – Company History eBay is widely regarded as one of the leading success stories of the Web 1.0 era, or the â€Å"dot-com boom† period in the late 1990’s that saw many internet companies go public with very high amounts of stock market speculation. eBay was founded by Pierre Omidyar in 1995 and Meg Whitman joined the company in 1998 with prior experience at Hasbro and Harvard Business School. (Gomes-Casseres, 2001) eBay outmaneuvered other web companies such as Yahoo!, Microsoft, and Amazon .com to earn significant revenue from ecommerce sales based on the auction and C2C model. eBay requires listing charges for people to advertise their goods for sale on the site, charges an additional percentage of the sale as a commission, and also receives a service charge from credit card transactions via its PayPal services. The company is the leader in the U.S. online auction market, and went public in 1998. As news sources reported, the company’s stock soared at the time of the IPO, â€Å"shares of eBay went up 163.2 percent† on the first day of trading to close at $47.375 with a market capitalization of $1.9 billion USD. (Kawamoto and Grice, 1998) Today, eBay trades on the NADAQ exchange under the symbol EBAY with a stock

Risk assessment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Risk assessment 3 - Essay Example Here we have production of the Formaldehyde that is supplied to a number of Industrial Customers throughout the UK and Europe. The main problem we are facing is with the place where our company is situated. This place is outside the industrial centre of the city and is relatively close to three housing estates and a small village, which in total have a population of 3000 people. The next problem is the tributary to the River Dee that passes directly alongside to company’s site boundary. This River is a successful habitat for salmon and other species of wildlife. Our production of Formaldehyde and industrial wastes are danger to these habitats. The main advantage of this location is the facilities of adjacent road and rail network which is utilized to transport our products. And also this plant is here over 40 years and it is really a prime location. There is also leakage from the tanks of Formaldehyde because a small formaldehyde leak from an on site storage tank about three years ago. The leakage was contained within the tank storage bund. There is a great danger to the levies of employment and residential people those are approximately 1250 persons. The production of the formaldehyde is a major bossiness constitute of our company so we did not stop its production. The thing we can de is the enhancement of companies overall working system. For this all we have to do a compliance risk analysis research and the identification of weak sectors where we need to so work. The main purpose of this report is to streamline the major risk factors and devising a mitigation plan for there resolution. In this section I will present a detailed risk assessment using a quantitative method. The main purpose of this assessment is to discover risks to our business from the on site process and transportation off site of formaldehyde. Here I have selected the event tree analysis

International Business - Multinational Enterprises - Cross Boundary Research Paper

International Business - Multinational Enterprises - Cross Boundary Expansions - Research Paper Example (So & Westward, 2009) By 2007, â€Å"Taobao held 82 percent of the market, according to Analysys International† and eBay sold out of the EachNet venture, maintaining only its www.ebay.cn operations, which were not adopted in a widespread manner for domestic Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) ecommerce transaction in China. (So & Westward, 2009) eBay can also be seen to have failed in the advancement of it PayPal strategy in China, which was surpassed by AliPay in usage by Chinese consumers. What is most striking in these examples is that eBay had the competitive advantages of pre-existing market dominance, brand name recognition, partnership with the dominant ecommerce auction website in China, and still failed in not only maintaining these market positions, but instead became a minority business operator in the Chinese domestic marketplace for online auctions. ... eBay’s failure to respect the local dynamics of Chinese culture and its patterns of internet use, its centralized corporate strategy internationally, as well as its failure to understand the threat of TaoBao to its business model in China all led to the eBay’s cross-boundary expansion strategy internationally being unsuccessful in accomplishing its aims of foreign market establishment, increased company profit, and the creation of long-term shareholder value. eBay – Company History eBay is widely regarded as one of the leading success stories of the Web 1.0 era, or the â€Å"dot-com boom† period in the late 1990’s that saw many internet companies go public with very high amounts of stock market speculation. eBay was founded by Pierre Omidyar in 1995 and Meg Whitman joined the company in 1998 with prior experience at Hasbro and Harvard Business School. (Gomes-Casseres, 2001) eBay outmaneuvered other web companies such as Yahoo!, Microsoft, and Amazon .com to earn significant revenue from ecommerce sales based on the auction and C2C model. eBay requires listing charges for people to advertise their goods for sale on the site, charges an additional percentage of the sale as a commission, and also receives a service charge from credit card transactions via its PayPal services. The company is the leader in the U.S. online auction market, and went public in 1998. As news sources reported, the company’s stock soared at the time of the IPO, â€Å"shares of eBay went up 163.2 percent† on the first day of trading to close at $47.375 with a market capitalization of $1.9 billion USD. (Kawamoto and Grice, 1998) Today, eBay trades on the NADAQ exchange under the symbol EBAY with a stock

ARISTOTLE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ARISTOTLE - Essay Example Wealth itself is a neutral entity, if used properly can be a boon, if mishandled can turn into a bane. Its usage depends on the kind of people who possess it and their intention and actions how they utilize them. In such circumspect it is the mark of a noble man to spend than desire to save and possess that makes him a gentleman. This in return earns them praise, accolades and soft corners in different sections. Virtue is a painless act, rather a peace earning act which blesses the soul. Righteous individual would leave less to him and give more to others. The degree to which an individual gives away with respect to self earnings and self possession hold more ground than one who may possess more yet donate and give away less. Without regard for self accumulation if the donation is given away, it holds more ground than any other case of noble intention. Richness in true sense in one when one gives away rather than possession of material goods. The consideration of giving away to the r ight kind and right type is also a very important factor. It must be ensured that the recipients are fully worthy of it and deserve to be granted in the name of charity and virtue. The timings of donation and give away are also vital, since small donations in time of need are more valuable than large donations at time when they are least needed. This noble realization establishes a sense of self scrutiny in an individual and restricts him to the righteous path only. Source of donation and earning is also a factor determinant of noble cause. Spend thrift and miserliness is a double evil element, and imbalances of either extreme poles, one serving for deprived livings and lifestyle, while the other stands as extra lavish spending which in other words is wastage of resources and elements. While spend thrift is termed as outer bound, miserliness is a least bound below the nominal line on which the activities should be undertaken. These two factors are not mutually inclusive and may occu r as a contrasting element with one occurring at a time only (Kass ,151). However, spend thrift is at times given the edge and goes pass the radar unnoticed for at least he contributes in a certain way, while the miser individual in no measure contributes what so ever. Certain factors are highlighted which may bring the spend thrift individual to a desired and ordered border line zone. These factors can be that of loss of pecuniary element or the souring of digits in the life span column. The miser is deemed as sheer ignoble and despicable only because he does not contribute in any way, does not yearn to solve the troubles of people, nor does he take any concrete action to help the downtrodden, underprivileged section of society who through may be faced with the turbulent circumstances. Yet the spend thrift cannot be exempted and they do stand nearly guilty as the misers for their sources may not be genuine and may have come from a source that are not preached by the book, ethics an d laws. The diminishing of their own armory possessions lead them to adopting means which are against the rules and against the grain of noble man. These two serve as deviances and detraction from the desired path line. This can be mended through guidance, counseling, and right path determination and instruction along with the sense of benevolence and mankind welfare

Assessment and Feedback Essay Example for Free

Assessment and Feedback Essay Assessment drives the choices students make about their learning. It is widely recognised that assessment and feedback contain the strongest potential to change how, and what, students do to succeed in their learning (Ramsden, 2003). This Effective Teaching Guide on Assessment provides practical suggestions on assessment and feedback. Assessment of Learning and Assessment for Learning David Boud, a recognised researcher and scholar of assessment in higher education, suggests that assessment has many purposes, but particularly to help students to improve their learning and certify students’ learning. These two purposes lead to different ways of thinking about what, how, and when to assess students: |Assessment OF Learning |Assessment FOR Learning | |Focused on learning that has already happened; |Focused on learning for the future; | |Making a judgement about final performance; |Goal is to provide useful information to students about how to learn | |Designed to discriminate between students’ achievement and performance; |more effectively; | | Focused on grades, precision and measurement; |Helps students to identify what they do and don’t know – focus is on | |Concerned that tasks are reliable and valid; |improvement; and, | |Testing usually takes place under ‘standardised’ conditions; and, |Develops students’ judgements about the quality of their work – and how | |Grade contributes to final certification. |to improve. | According to Boud and Associate’s Seven Propositions for Assessment Reform in Higher Education (2010), assessment has most effect when: 1. Assessment is used to engage students in learning that is productive (including the need for assessment to be designed to focus students on learning); 2. Feedback is used to actively improve student learning; 3. Students and teachers become responsible partners in learning and assessment; 4. Students are inducted into the assessment practices and cultures of higher education; 5. Assessment for learning is placed at the centre of subject and project design; 6. Assessment for learning is a focus for staff and institutional development; and, 7. Assessment provides inclusive and trustworthy representation of student achievement. The power of feedback Feedback plays an important role in improving students’ learning. A useful summary is that provided by Gibbs and Simpson’s (2004). In their meta-study of the research about how assessment and feedback support student learning, 7 of their 10 identified conditions relate to feedback, and students’ understanding of feedback. These are:  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Sufficient feedback is provided, both often enough and in enough detail; †¢ Feedback focuses on students’ performance, on their learning and on actions under the students’ control, rather than on the students themselves and on their characteristics; †¢ Feedback is timely in that it is received by students while it still matters to them, and in time for them to pay attention to further learning or receive further assistance; †¢ Feedback is appropriate to the purpose of the assignment and to its criteria for success; †¢ Feedback is appropriate, in relation to students’ understanding of what they are supposed to be doing; †¢ Feedback is received and attended to; and, †¢ Feedback is acted on by the student. Hounsell (2004) also makes the following points about feedback: †¢ It can be extrinsic (assessment-focused) or intrinsic (activity and practice-based); †¢ It can be immediate and verbal (in order to address the potential lack of engagement when it arrives after an assessment); †¢ It can be provided to be a whole class; †¢ It can be many to many where students are involved in identifying the strengths and weaknesses (peer feedback); and, †¢ Feedback can be a loop – it can be offered on unfinished work. Another useful idea is feed-forward. Feed-forward encourages students to use something like a marking rubric (also captured by the idea of criteria and standards) to help plan their approach to an assessment. While a marking rubric is routinely used by university teachers to mark/grade students’ work (as an expression of what a student needs to demonstrate (and the level they need to achieve) to receive a particular grade), the idea of feed-forward is about encouraging students to use that same information in the rubric to plan their work, and perhaps even, to self-assess it before submitting it for formal feedback. In summary: Feedback example: Develop a marking rubric as a cover sheet. The rubric identifies the elements of the assignment, together with a breakdown of marks for each element or a description of the standard for an A, B, C, D, P etc. Feed-forward example: Provide the marking rubric to students before the assignment is due so that they clearly understand what’s expected, the levels of achievement, and can plan their approach accordingly. In marking student work, you’ll need a suite of feedback techniques. Remember, if you’re going to be spending a lot of time providing feedback, you want to make sure that students read, use and engage with your feedback to improve their next assignment. The best way to do that is to have a range of techniques that you can draw on, when you need to. The table below describes some feedback techniques. |Technique |Why use this technique? |How would I use this technique? | |Use a marking rubric that contains information |To encourage students to engage, wrestle |Set aside time to discuss the rubric with students| |about criteria and standards. Offer it to |with and develop an understanding of the |in class. Provide examples of what an A, B, C, D | |students so that they can use it to plan high |criteria and standards related to an |and P level answer /assignment looks like. Explain| |achieving work. |assessment task before embarking on their|the differences to students and engage them in a | | |work. |dialogue. Get them to mark assignments samples so | | | |that they have to engage with the criteria and | | | |standards before embarking on their own | | | |assignment. | |Provide verbal ‘global’ feedback to the whole |To emphasise the common achievements and |As you mark assignments, make a list of 3 things | |class. |errors made across all assignments within|done well, and 3 things in need of improvement | | |a student cohort. |across the whole cohort. Use the next available | | | |class to provide feedback to the whole cohort. Be | | | |specific and provide an example. Post a summary on| | | |Moodle. | |Provide written feedback only. The mark/grade |To focus students’ improvement efforts on| | |is released only after students demonstrate a |the written comment rather than the | | |plan for improvement. |number/grade. The technique assumes that | | | |the learning for students is located in | | | |the staff comments. | | |Invite students to tell you 2-3 specific |To develop students’ capacity to |Ask students to write these 2-3 elements somewhere| |elements of the assignment they would like you |self-assess the quality of their |on the assignment cover sheet before submitting | |to focus your feedback on. |submitted work. |it. Your feedback on these elements does not need | | | |to be extensive but they warrant comment. | |Ask students to indicate the grade (ie, A, B, |To encourage students to engage with the |Invite students to write a 100 word justification | |C, D) they think their assignment should |criteria and standards for the assignment|about the grade they’ve nominated. Your final | |receive. |as part of their planning. |feedback and grade does not need to align with the| | | |students but you may wish to note any differences | | | |in each of your perceptions about the quality of | | | |the work. | |Encourage students to demonstrate/write how |For students to demonstrate how they have|Make this aspect a ‘hurdle’ requirement – to be | |they’ve used your feedback as part of the next |used feedback to improve future learning. |submitted with the next immediate assignment. | |assignment. | | | One observation you might make about each of these techniques is that they are focused on: (i) engaging students with the criteria and standards, and (ii) with what the student does with the feedback they receive. If you’d like to read more about these two ideas (and others like them), two articles may be especially useful to you: Rust, Price O’Donovan (2003) and Price, O’Donovan Rust (2004). Consistency and fairness in marking and feedback Consistency in marking, or moderation, is aimed at ensuring fairness in marking, and requires finding or establishing agreement between markers. Making sure that assignments contain criteria and standards is a good start because the expectations involved are clear to the student and clear to the marker. Although this does not absolve the marker from interpreting students’ work, without criteria or standards, the job of marking ends up being much harder. The procedures for marking are set out in the University’s Assessment Procedures (an excerpt of the principles is below): Where there is more than one marker, selected pieces of work from each assessment task should be reviewed by the subject coordinator to verify the level and consistency of the marks allocated by the marker. This process, called moderation, increases the reliability of the assessment process and application of standards, promotes consistency, supports objectivity and establishes a shared understanding of standards and fairness in assessment. The university also has a grading schema with a range of Pass grades. |80-100% |A | |70-79% |B | |60-69% |C | |50-59% |D | |Ungraded |P (may also denote satisfactory completion of a Masters Prelim course of | | |postgraduate thesis) | Graduate capabilities Alongside the conventional grading schema, from 2012, all commencing first year students will receive a result on the achievement of the university’s six graduate capabilities at the end of the year: †¢ Writing †¢ Speaking †¢ Inquiry/Research †¢ Critical thinking †¢ Creative Problem-solving †¢ Teamwork There are some subjects which have been designated cornerstone, mid-point and capstone status. This means that their curriculum has been designed to teach, assess, provide feedback and report specifically on these graduate capabilities. For each graduate capability, students will receive one of three results: exceeded expectations, met expectations or did not meet expectations. Each faculty has carefully crafted a description of what these standards look like. It may be the case that you will be asked to provide feedback to students about their graduate capability achievement as well. Because faculties will have already done substantial work outlining those standards, it is likely you will be asked to offer students that feedback. Summary When considered together, assessment and feedback are incredibly powerful levers for influencing the direction of students’ efforts, and their learning. For many students, the assessment in the subject is the actual curriculum. It is largely students’ reading and perception of what the assessment demands of them which is a key determinant in how they spend their time in a subject. Therefore, the messages that students take away about assessment from the documents; the Subject Guide; from interaction with other students, are important considerations. In the second week, you will discover just how crucial feedback is to this process and how the adoption of standards and criteria will help you mark and grade more efficiently and effectively. References Gibbs, G. and Simpson, C. (2004). Conditions Under Which Assessment Supports Student Learning. Learning and Teaching, Issue 1, pp: 3-31. Hattie, J. Timperley, H. (2007). The Power of Feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112. Hounsell, D. (2004). Reinventing Feedback in the Contemporary Scottish University. Scottish Quality Enhancement Workshop on Assessment, University of Glasgow [available online at: www. enhancementthemes. ac. uk/documents/events/20040604/Hounsellpaper. pdf]. O’Donovan, B. , Price, M. , Rust, C. (2004). Know what I mean? Enhancing student understanding of assessment standards and criteria. Teaching in Higher Education, 9(3), 325-335. Orrell, J. (2006). Assessment beyond intuition. Central Queensland University [available online at: http://www. learning. cq. edu. au/FCWViewer/view. do? page=8896, accessed Feb 2011]. Price, M. , O’Donovan, B. , Rust, C. (2004). Know what I mean? Enhancing student understanding of assessment standards and criteria. Teaching in Higher Education, 9(3), 325-335. Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to teach in higher education. (2nd edition). Routledge, NY London. Rust, C. , Price, M. , O’Donovan, B. (2003). Improving Students’ Learning by Developing their Understanding of Assessment Criteria and Processes. Assessment Evaluation in Higher Education, 28(2), 147-164. Taylor, J. (2008). Assessment in First Year University: A model to manage transition. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 5(1).

The Life Of Alexander Pushkin

The Life Of Alexander Pushkin Freedom in Alexander Pushkin’s literary works occupies one of the central positions; however, Pushkin treats freedom from various sides and perspectives. Living in the period of social and political changes, in the era of the Great Patriotic War of 1812 and the revolt of Decembrist of 1825, Pushkin belonged to the generation which was in search of ideal freedom. However, being unable to attain this kind of freedom, Russian poets of the nineteenth century made constant attempts to replace one idea of freedom with another, finally realising that freedom in real life was constantly restricted. Alexander Pushkin went further than other poets of his times in his treatment of freedom, inspiring the formation of new Russian civic poetry and influencing such poets as Nekrasov and Lermontov. As Janko Lavrin points out, â€Å"what the world now understands and admires under the name of Russian literature came with and after Pushkin† (p.65).   Ã‚   At the beginning of Pushkin’s literary career, the issue of freedom in his literary works acquires a strong political tendency. In his early poem Volnost (1817) Pushkin reveals his vision of ideal freedom, opposing the existing absolute power of kings and expressing the idea that true freedom can be achieved only under the constitutional monarchy.   In Pushkin’s poem K Chaadaevy (1818) the political idea of freedom acquires a slightly different direction; in this poetic work Pushkin points at the necessity of defending his native land. For Pushkin, love for homeland is inseparably connected with the struggle for freedom. However, as Pushkin becomes mature, he rejects a pure political treatment of freedom, demonstrating his interest in inner freedom of a person. In this regard, Pushkin implicitly draws a parallel between inner freedom and poetic perception of freedom in his poetic work Derevnja (1819). Such a combination uncovers many possibilities for achieving freedom, but, on the other hand, it evokes inner doubts, which the poet does not dissipate by the end of the poem. The first part of Derevnja reveals the poet’s ecstatic delight of his achieved freedom: In the second part of the poem Pushkin ponders over the destiny of Russian people, feeling that his poems are unable to provide them with long-waited freedom, that they are unable to completely eliminate serfdom which destroys people’s lives and their inner selves. Contrasting beauty of nature with lack of freedom in the village, Pushkin shows that people can acquire happiness only in free society. As Alexander Pushkin claims,    Thus, the poet appeals to the king and asks him to annihilate serfdom, providing people with freedom and knowledge. As the poet, Pushkin has the only tool – his poetry – to strive for universal freedom. But in such poems as K Moryu (1824) and IzPindemonti (1836) Alexander Pushkin continues his discussion of inner freedom, presenting a romantic embodiment of freedom. As the poet realises that he is not able to achieve freedom in real life, he turns to freedom in his dreams, identifying himself with nature. In the poetic work K Moryu Pushkin applies to the image of sea, which symbolises both inner freedom of a person and poetic freedom. For Pushkin, sea is the embodiment of free and rebellious nature, but at the same time through the image of sea Pushkin reveals the poet’s loneliness in his struggle for freedom. However, it is nature that gives necessary power and freedom to Pushkin, saving him from any dependence: These words from Pushkin’s poem IzPindemonti reveal that the poet is in search of new verges of freedom, the verges that overcome the existing reality. This search is especially obvious in his famous poem Uznik (1822), where the appeal for inner freedom is expressed through eagle’s cry. Both the eagle and the prisoner are captives who are deprived of their freedom. Alexander Pushkin creates this poem in exile, where he is deprived of freedom, of close relatives and friends.   However, the eagle is a freedom-loving bird, and its greatest wish is to attain freedom. Alexander Pushkin identifies himself with the eagle, maintaining the idea that a person is also free by nature, thus freedom is crucial for any human being: In this regard, Pushkin implicitly shows that political, outer and poetic freedom stand behind inner freedom. On the other hand, Pushkin realises that it is impossible for the poet to completely reject one aspect of freedom for the sake of another; As Angus Calder points out, â€Å"a man who respects himself as ‘autonomous’ will of course tend to chafe against political tyranny and may well seek a place where he may have ‘independent’ control of his own life† (p.35). Uznik was written when Pushkin was only twenty-three years old, but even at this age the poet realised that society, in which he lived, specifically created invisible barriers and restrictions, wrong ideals and illusions, and Pushkin expressed his longing for real freedom. Deviating from the political treatment of freedom, Pushkin realises that a poet should be free both from people and from authorities; only in this case it is possible to create freedom-loving poetry. In Pesni o veshem Olege Pushkin points out that any literary work should be free and truthful. After the Decembrists’ defeat, Pushkin continues to dream of freedom, hoping to realise this dream. As Pushkin claims in his poem Vo glubine sibirskich rud dedicated to his friends-Decembrists, In the series of Southern Poems Alexander Pushkin introduces the idea that outer freedom can not be attained. In such poems as Zygane (1930) and Fontany Bahchizaraiskogo dvorza (1824) Pushkin portrays certain spheres where freedom of people is strongly confined, but nevertheless, a person is able to develop and preserve inner freedom. Such treatment of freedom coincides with the ideals of Renaissance; Pushkin’s obsession with inner freedom reflects the revival of national consciousness under complex social changes. Thus, Pushkin’s ideas of freedom possess cultural roots rather than political, despite the fact that some of his poetic works, such as Arion, Anchar and Skaski, demonstrate an open protest against the existing political system. But Pushkin’s rebel is of spiritual nature; it is the rebel of a person who is overwhelmed with humanism and who rejects any personal violence. Instead of the existing ideology of the nineteenth century, Alexander Pushkin create s his own ideology of inner freedom in the context of universal freedom (Edmunds, pp.29-32). In his poem Ya pamyatnik sebe vozdvig nerykotvorniy Alexander Pushkin points out that his major life achievement is his freedom-loving poetry:   Ã‚   But Pushkin does not restrict himself only to poetry; he freely experiments with different literary genres, making an attempt to â€Å"explore the possibilities of prose in the same way as he had explored the possibilities of verse† (Lavrin, p.183). However, his ideal of inner freedom remains central to all his literary works. This is especially true in regard to Pushkin’s short stories, novels and tales. In his famous verse novel Evgeniy Onegin Pushkin points at the characters’ inability to achieve inner freedom. Pushkin portrays aristocratic society, which is unable to overcome the existing restrictions (Falen, pp.7-10). Perhaps, the only character who is able to attain inner freedom is Tatiana, a young girl with intelligence and longing for love. Tatiana falls in love with Onegin, the principal character of the play, and she is the first who makes a declaration of love. However, Onegin rejects her in a most inappropriate way, and Tatiana suffers much, loosing her inner freedom. As Tatiana claims: She marries an old gentleman and remains devoted to him, despite the fact that she still loves Onegin. Thus, in Evgeniy Onegin Pushkin uncovers the reality of his life, embodying his own thoughts of inner freedom in the character of Tatiana. In Pushkin’s tale Pikovaya Dama the writer discusses inner freedom in a different context. Introducing the character of Germann, Pushkin reveals the negative consequences of Germann’s wish to achieve freedom. Germann considers that true freedom can be attained only with the help of money, but as he gets more and more entangled in deceits, he destroys himself and other characters. In fact, Germann looses his self and his freedom, as he becomes obsessed with playing cards; in this context, abstract things take full control over Germann’s life, driving him mad by the end of the narration. Comparing his character with Napoleon and Mephistopheles, Pushkin uncovers the essence of Germann who does not acknowledge any moral principle s or laws. As Pushkin claims in regard to his character, The similar portrayal Pushkin utilises towards an old countess, ‘Pikovaya Dama’. The old woman in Pushkin’s tale is identified with an Egyptian mummy; she is a lifeless creature who lacks any freedom and who leads meaningless life within aristocratic society. Alexander Pushkin does not treat old woman’s death as tragedy, because, for Pushkin, life without freedom is empty existence. In this regard, inner freedom in Pikovaya Dama is discussed through freedom of moral choice. Germann and the old woman make a wrong choice, thus loosing the possibility to attain inner freedom. However, in contrast to these characters, Pushkin introduces the character of Lisaveta Ivanovna who greatly values her moral principles that finally save her. In his story Egypetskiye Nochi Pushkin returns to the issue of freedom in the context of poetry. On the example of Charskii, a poet and aristocrat, Pushkin reveals his own suffering, as he makes an attempt to become a freedom-loving poet (Debreczeny, pp.11-13). Similar to Pushkin’s poetry, Egypetskiye Nochi discusses the relations between the poet and society, and these relations reflect the essence of his views on the idea of inner freedom. Although Pushkin demonstrates a close connection between the poet and people, he nevertheless points at the necessity of freedom for the poet. At the beginning of the story Pushkin shows Charskii’s dependence on society: However, further Pushkin demonstrates Charskii’s dissatisfaction with such position and his attempts to preserve his inner freedom. In his conversation with a stranger, Charskii exclaims: Charskii, similar to Pushkin himself, feels loneliness within society in which he lives. In his poem Svobody seyatel pustynniy (1823) Pushkin reveals a notion that a poet lives among people who are not able to perceive his ideas of freedom. On the other hand, in the poem Prorok (1826) Pushkin states that any poet that wants to appeal for freedom should endure many difficulties and pain. Alexander Pushkin suffered throughout his life, and these sufferings were reflected in all his freedom-loving poetry and prose.    Analysing the ideas of freedom in Alexander Pushkin’s poetry and prose, the essay suggests that Pushkin’s treatment of freedom changes throughout his literary career. Starting with an idea of political freedom, Pushkin gradually realises the vainness of his attempts to attain outer freedom. In his further works the poet pays more attention to inner freedom of an individual, applying to symbolical understanding of freedom through understanding of nature. It is this inner freedom that Pushkin values above all other kinds of freedom, implicitly or explicitly referring to inner freedom in almost all his poetic and prose works. This inner freedom in Pushkin’s poetry concerns various issues, such as freedom of choice, freedom from any biases, freedom of religious beliefs and, above all, freedom of creative work. In Pushkin’s prose works inner freedom is inseparable from moral values of people. Overall, freedom-loving poetry and prose of Alexander Pushkin contrib ute to the formation of a characteristic writing style, which is adopted by further generations of Russian poets. Works Cited Calder, Angus. 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